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Viser: Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis
Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis
Joseph Goldstein, Patrick Echlin, David C. Joy, Eric Lifshin, Charles E. Lyman, J. R. Michael, Dale E. Newbury og Linda Sawyer
(2007)
Sprog: Engelsk
Detaljer om varen
- Hardback: 586 sider
- Udgiver: Springer (April 2007)
- Forfattere: Joseph Goldstein, Patrick Echlin, David C. Joy, Eric Lifshin, Charles E. Lyman, J. R. Michael, Dale E. Newbury og Linda Sawyer
- ISBN: 9780306472923
This text provides students as well as practitioners with a comprehensive introduction to the field of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray microanalysis. The authors emphasize the practical aspects of the techniques described. Topics discussed include user-controlled functions of scanning electron microscopes and x-ray spectrometers and the use of x-rays for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Separate chapters cover SEM sample preparation methods for hard materials, polymers, and biological specimens. In addition techniques for the elimination of charging in non-conducting specimens are detailed.
1.1. Imaging Capabilities.-
1.2. Structure Analysis.-
1.3. Elemental Analysis.-
1.4. Summary and Outline of This Book.- Appendix A. Overview of Scanning Electron Microscopy.- Appendix B. Overview of Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis.- References.-
2. The SEM and Its Modes of Operation.-
2.1. How the SEM Works.-
2.1.1. Functions of the SEM Subsystems.-
2.1.1.1. Electron Gun and Lenses Produce a Small Electron Beam.-
2.1.1.2. Deflection System Controls Magnification.-
2.1.1.3. Electron Detector Collects the Signal.-
2.1.1.4. Camera or Computer Records the Image.-
2.1.1.5. Operator Controls.-
2.1.2. SEM Imaging Modes.-
2.1.2.1. Resolution Mode.-
2.1.2.2. High-Current Mode.-
2.1.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.-
2.1.2.4. Low-Voltage Mode.-
2.1.3. Why Learn about Electron Optics'.-
2.2. Electron Guns.-
2.2.1. Tungsten Hairpin Electron Guns.-
2.2.1.1. Filament.-
2.2.1.2. Grid Cap.-
2.2.1.3. Anode.-
2.2.1.4. Emission Current and Beam Current.-
2.2.1.5. Operator Control of the Electron Gun.-
2.2.2. Electron Gun Characteristics.-
2.2.2.1. Electron Emission Current.-
2.2.2.2. Brightness.-
2.2.2.3. Lifetime.-
2.2.2.4. Source Size, Energy Spread, Beam Stability.-
2.2.2.5. Improved Electron Gun Characteristics.-
2.2.3. Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Electron Guns.-
2.2.3.1. Introduction.-
2.2.3.2. Operation of the LaB6 Source.-
2.2.4. Field Emission Electron Guns.-
2.3. Electron Lenses.-
2.3.1. Making the Beam Smaller.-
2.3.1.1. Electron Focusing.-
2.3.1.2. Demagnification of the Beam.-
2.3.2. Lenses in SEMs.-
2.3.2.1. Condenser Lenses.-
2.3.2.2. Objective Lenses.-
2.3.2.3. Real and Virtual Objective Apertures.-
2.3.3. Operator Control of SEM Lenses.-
2.3.3.1. Effect of Aperture Size.-
2.3.3.2. Effect of Working Distance.-
2.3.3.3. Effect of Condenser Lens Strength.-
2.3.4. Gaussian Probe Diameter.-
2.3.5. Lens Aberrations.-
2.3.5.1. Spherical Aberration.-
2.3.5.2. Aperture Diffraction.-
2.3.5.3. Chromatic Aberration.-
2.3.5.4. Astigmatism.-
2.3.5.5. Aberrations in the Objective Lens.-
2.4. Electron Probe Diameter versus Electron Probe Current.-
2.4.1. Calculation of dmin and imax.-
2.4.1.1. Minimum Probe Size.-
2.4.1.2. Minimum Probe Size at 10-30 kV.-
2.4.1.3. Maximum Probe Current at 10-30 kV.-
2.4.1.4. Low-Voltage Operation.-
2.4.1.5. Graphical Summary.-
2.4.2. Performance in the SEM Modes.-
2.4.2.1. Resolution Mode.-
2.4.2.2. High-Current Mode.-
2.4.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.-
2.4.2.4. Low-Voltage SEM.-
2.4.2.5. Environmental Barriers to High-Resolution Imaging.- References.-
3. Electron Beam-Specimen Interactions.-
3.1. The Story So Far.-
3.2. The Beam Enters the Specimen.-
3.3. The Interaction Volume.-
3.3.1. Visualizing the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.2. Simulating the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.3. Influence of Beam and Specimen Parameters on the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.3.1. Influence of Beam Energy on the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.3.2. Influence of Atomic Number on the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.3.3. Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.4. Electron Range: A Simple Measure of the Interaction Volume.-
3.3.4.1. Introduction.-
3.3.4.2. The Electron Range at Low Beam Energy.-
3.4. Imaging Signals from the Interaction Volume.-
3.4.1. Backscattered Electrons.-
3.4.1.1. Atomic Number Dependence of BSE.-
3.4.1.2. Beam Energy Dependence of BSE.-
3.4.1.3. Tilt Dependence of BSE.-
3.4.1.4. Angular Distribution of BSE.-
3.4.1.5. Energy Distribution of BSE.-
3.4.1.6. Lateral Spatial Distribution of BSE.-
3.4.1.7. Sampling Depth of BSE.-
3.4.2. Secondary Electrons.-
3.4.2.1. Definition and Origin of SE.-
3.4.2.2. SE Yield with Primary Beam Energy.-
3.4.2.3. SE Energy Distribution.-
3.4.2.4. Range and Escape Depth of SE.-
3.4.2.5. Relative Contributions of SE1 and SE2.-
3.4.2.6. Specimen Composition Dependence of SE.-
3.4.2.7. Specimen Tilt Dependence of SE.-
3.4.2.8. Angular Distribution of SE.- References.-
4. Image Formation and Interpretation.-
4.1. The Story So Far.-
4.2. The Basic SEM Imaging Process.-
4.2.1. Scanning Action.-
4.2.2. Image Construction (Mapping).-
4.2.2.1. Line Scans.-
4.2.2.2. Image (Area) Scanning.-
4.2.2.3. Digital Imaging: Collection and Display.-
4.2.3. Magnification.-
4.2.4. Picture Element (Pixel) Size.-
4.2.5. Low-Magnification Operation.-
4.2.6. Depth of Field (Focus).-
4.2.7. Image Distortion.-
4.2.7.1. Projection Distortion: Gnomonic Projection.-
4.2.7.2. Projection Distortion: Image Foreshortening.-
4.2.7.3. Scan Distortion: Pathological Defects.-
4.2.7.4. Moiré Effects.-
4.3. Detectors.-
4.3.1. Introduction.-
4.3.2. Electron Detectors.-
4.3.2.1. Everhart-Thornley Detector.-
4.3.2.2. "Through-the-Lens" (TTL) Detector.-
4.3.2.3. Dedicated Backscattered Electron Detectors.-
4.4. The Roles of the Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation.-
4.4.1. Contrast.-
4.4.2. Compositional (Atomic Number) Contrast.-
4.4.2.1. Introduction.-
4.4.2.2. Compositional Contrast with Backscattered Electrons.-
4.4.3. Topographic Contrast.-
4.4.3.1. Origins of Topographic Contrast.-
4.4.3.2. Topographic Contrast with the Everhart-Thornley Detector.-
4.4.3.3. Light-Optical Analogy.-
4.4.3.4. Interpreting Topographic Contrast with Other Detectors.-
4.5. Image Quality.-
4.6. Image Processing for the Display of Contrast Information.-
4.6.1. The Signal Chain.-
4.6.2. The Visibility Problem.-
4.6.3. Analog and Digital Image Processing.-
4.6.4. Basic Digital Image Processing.-
4.6.4.1. Digital Image Enhancement.-
4.6.4.2. Digital Image Measurements.- References.-
5. Special Topics in Scanning Electron Microscopy.-
5.1. High-Resolution Imaging.-
5.1.1. The Resolution Problem.-
5.1.2. Achieving High Resolution at High Beam Energy.-
5.1.3. High-Resolution Imaging at Low Voltage.-
5.2. STEM-in-SEM: High Resolution for the Special Case of Thin Specimens.-
5.3. Surface Imaging at Low Voltage.-
5.4. Making Dimensional Measurements in the SEM.-
5.5. Recovering the Third Dimension: Stereomicroscopy.-
5.5.1. Qualitative Stereo Imaging and Presentation.-
5.5.2. Quantitative Stereo Microscopy.-
5.6. Variable-Pressure and Environmental SEM.-
5.6.1. Current Instruments.-
5.6.2. Gas in the Specimen Chamber.-
5.6.2.1. Units of Gas Pressure.-
5.6.2.2. The Vacuum System.-
5.6.3. Electron Interactions with Gases.-
5.6.4. The Effect of the Gas on Charging.-
5.6.5. Imaging in the ESEM and the VPSEM.-
5.6.6. X-Ray Microanalysis in the Presence of a Gas.-
5.7. Special Contrast Mechanisms.-
5.7.1. Electric Fields.-
5.7.2. Magnetic Fields.-
5.7.2.1. Type 1 Magnetic Contrast.-
5.7.2.2. Type 2 Magnetic Contrast.-
5.7.3. Crystallographic Contrast.-
5.8. Electron Backscatter Patterns.-
5.8.1. Origin of EBSD Patterns.-
5.8.2. Hardware for EBSD.-
5.8.3. Resolution of EBSD.-
5.8.3.1. Lateral Spatial Resolution.-
5.8.3.2. Depth Resolution.-
5.8.4. Applications.-
5.8.4.1. Orientation Mapping.-
5.8.4.2. Phase Identification.- References.-
6. Generation of X-Rays in the SEM Specimen.-
6.1. Continuum X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung).-
6.2. Characteristic X-Ray Production.-
6.2.1. Origin.-
6.2.2. Fluorescence Yield.-
6.2.3. Electron Shells.-
6.2.4. Energy-Level Diagram.-
6.2.5. Electron Transitions.-
6.2.6. Critical Ionization Energy.-
6.2.7. Moseley''s Law.-
6.2.8. Families of Characteristic Lines.-
6.2.9. Natural Width of Characteristic X-Ray Lines.-
6.2.10. Weights of Lines.-
6.2.11. Cross Section for Inner Shell Ionization.-
6.2.12. X-Ray Production in Thin Foils.-
6.2.13. X-Ray Production in Thick Targets.-
6.2.14. X-Ray Peak-to-Background Ratio.-
6.3. Depth of X-Ray Production (X-Ray Range).-
6.3.1. Anderson-Hasler X-Ray Range.-
6.3.2. X-Ray Spatial Resolution.-
6.3.3. Sampling Volume and Specimen Homogeneity.-
6.3.4.Depth Distribution of X-Ray Production, ?(?z).-
6.4. X-Ray Absorption.-
6.4.1. Mass Absorption Coefficient for an Element.-
6.4.2. Effect of Absorption Edge on Spectrum.-
6.4.3. Absorption Coefficient for Mixed-Element Absorbers.-
6.5. X-Ray Fluorescence.-
6.5.1. Characteristic Fluorescence.-
6.5.2. Continuum Fluorescence.-
6.5.3. Range of Fluorescence Radiation.- References.-
7. X-Ray Spectral Measurement: EDS and WDS.-
7.1. Introduction.-
7.2. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer.-
7.2.1. Operating Principles.-
7.2.2. The Detection Process.-
7.2.3. Charge-to-Voltage Conversion.-
7.2.4. Pulse-Shaping Linear Amplifier and Pileup Rejection Circuitry.-
7.2.5. The Computer X-Ray Analyzer.-
7.2.6. Digital Pulse Processing.-
7.2.7. Spectral Modification Resulting from the Detection Process.-
7.2.7.1. Peak Broadening.-
7.2.7.2. Peak Distortion.-
7.2.7.3. Silicon X-Ray Escape Peaks.-
7.2.7.4. Absorption Edges.-
7.2.7.5. Silicon Internal Fluorescence Peak.-
7.2.8. Artifacts from the Detector Environment.-
7.2.9. Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts.-
7.3. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer.-
7.3.1. Introduction.-
7.3.2. Basic Description.-
7.3.3. Diffraction Conditions.-
7.3.4. Diffracting Crystals.-
7.3.5. The X-Ray Proportional Counter.-
7.3.6. Detector Electronics.-
7.4. Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Conventional Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers.-
7.4.1. Geometric Collection Efficiency.-
7.4.2. Quantum Efficiency.-
7.4.3. Resolution.-
7.4.4. Spectral Acceptance Range.-
7.4.5. Maximum Count Rate.-
7.4.6. Minimum Probe Size.-
7.4.7. Speed of Analysis.-
7.4.8. Spectral Artifacts.-
7.5. Emerging Detector Technologies.-
7.5.1. X-Ray Microcalorimetery.-
7.5.2. Silicon Drift Detectors.-
7.5.3. Parallel Optic Diffraction-Based Spectrometers.- References.-
8. Qualitative X-Ray Analysis.-
8.1. Introduction.-
8.2. EDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.2.1. X-Ray Peaks.-
8.2.2. Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.2.2.1. General Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.2.2.2. Specific Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.2.3. Examples of Manual EDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.2.4. Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.2.5. Advanced Qualitative Analysis: Peak Stripping.-
8.2.6. Automatic Qualitative EDS Analysis.-
8.3. WDS Qualitative Analysis.-
8.3.1. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectro