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Foreword xv Acknowledgements xvii Preface xix Symbols xxi Abbrevations xxiii Introduction xxv
Part I Batteries with Aqueous Electrolytes 1 1 General Aspects 3
1.1 Definition 3
1.2 Current-Producing Chemical Reaction 3
1.3 Classification 5
1.4 Thermodynamic Aspects 6
1.5 Historical Development 8
1.6 Nomenclature 9 Reviews and Monographs 10 2 Main Battery Types 11
2.1 Electrochemical Systems 11
2.2 Leclanché (Zinc-Carbon) Batteries 12
2.3 The Zinc Electrode in Alkaline Solutions 14
2.4 Alkaline Manganese-Zinc Batteries 14
2.5 Lead Acid Batteries 17
2.6 Alkaline Nickel Storage Batteries 20
2.7 Silver-Zinc Batteries 23 References 24 Monographs and Reviews 25 3 Performance 27
3.1 Electrical Characteristics of Batteries 27
3.2 Electrical Characteristics of Storage Batteries 30
3.3 Comparative Characteristics 30
3.4 Operational Characteristics 31 References 32 4 Miscellaneous Batteries 33
4.1 Mercury-Zinc Batteries 33
4.2 Compound Batteries 34
4.3 Batteries with Water as Reactant 37
4.4 Standard Cells 38
4.5 Reserve Batteries 39 Reference 41 Reviews and Monographs 41 5 Design and Technology 43
5.1 Balance in Batteries 43
5.2 Scale Factors 44
5.3 Separators 44
5.4 Sealing 46
5.5 Ohmic Losses 47
5.6 Thermal Processes in Batteries 48 6 Applications of Batteries 51
6.1 Automotive Equipment Starter and Auxiliary Batteries 51
6.2 Traction Batteries 52
6.3 Stationary Batteries 53
6.4 Domestic and Portable Systems 53
6.5 Special Applications 54 7 Operational Problems 55
7.1 Discharge and Maintenance of Primary Batteries 55
7.2 Maintenance of Storage Batteries 56
7.3 General Aspects of Battery Maintenance 60 8 Outlook for Batteries with Aqueous Electrolyte 63 References 64
Part II Batteries with Nonaqueous Electrolytes 65 9 Different Kinds of Electrolytes 67
9.1 Electrolytes Based on Aprotic Nonaqueous Solutions 68
9.2 Ionically Conducting Molten Salts 69
9.3 Ionically Conducting Solid Electrolytes 70 References 72 10 Insertion Compounds 73 Monographs and Reviews 76 11 Primary Lithium Batteries 77
11.1 General Information: Brief History 77
11.2 Current-Producing and Other Processes in Primary Power Sources 79
11.3 Design of Primary Lithium Cells 81
11.4 Fundamentals of the Technology of Manufacturing of Lithium Primary Cells 82
11.5 Electric Characteristics of Lithium Cells 82
11.6 Operational Characteristics of Lithium Cells 83
11.7 Features of Primary Lithium Cells of Different Electrochemical Systems 84 Monographs 89 12 Lithium Ion Batteries 91
12.1 General Information: Brief History 91
12.2 Current-Producing and Other Processes in Lithium Ion Batteries 93
12.3 Design and Technology of Lithium Ion Batteries 96
12.4 Electric Characteristics, Performance, and Other Characteristics of Lithium Ion Batteries 98
12.5 Prospects of Development of Lithium Ion Batteries 99 Monographs 101 13 Lithium Ion Batteries: What Next? 103
13.1 Lithium-Air Batteries 103
13.2 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 106
13.3 Sodium Ion Batteries 108 Reviews 110 14 Solid-State Batteries 111
14.1 Low-Temperature Miniature Batteries with Solid Electrolytes 111
14.2 Sulfur-Sodium Storage Batteries 112 Monographs and Reviews 115 15 Batteries with Molten Salt Electrolytes 117
15.1 Storage Batteries 117
15.2 Reserve-Type Thermal Batteries 120 References 122
Part III Fuel Cells 123 16 General Aspects 125
16.1 Thermodynamic Aspects 125
16.2 Schematic Layout of Fuel-Cell Units 128
16.3 Types of Fuel Cells 131
16.4 Layout of a Real Fuel Cell: The Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell with Liquid Electrolyte 132
16.5 Basic Parameters of Fuel Cells 134 Reference 140 Monographs 140 17 The Development of Fuel Cells 141
17.1 The Period prior to 1894 141
17.2 The Period from 1894 to 1960 143
17.3 The Period from 1960 to the 1990s 144
17.4 The Period after the 1990s 148 References 149 Monographs and Reviews 150 18 Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) 151
18.1 The History of PEMFC 151
18.2 Standard PEMFC Version of the 1990s 154
18.3 Operating Conditions of PEMFC 156
18.4 Special Features of PEMFC Operation 157
18.5 Platinum Catalyst Poisoning by Traces of Co in the Hydrogen 159
18.6 Commercial Activities in Relation to PEMFC 161
18.7 Future Development of PEMFCs 162
18.8 Elevated-Temperature PEMFCs (ET-PEMFCs) 167 References 170 Reviews 170 19 Direct Liquid Fuel Cells with Gaseous, Liquid, And/Or Solid Reagents 171
19.1 Current-Producing Reactions and Thermodynamic Parameters 172
19.2 Anodic Oxidation of Methanol 172
19.3 Use of Platinum-Ruthenium Catalysts for Methanol Oxidation 173
19.4 Milestones in DMFC Development 173
19.5 Membrane Penetration by Methanol (Methanol Crossover) 174
19.6 Varieties of DMFC 176
19.7 Special Operating Features of DMFC 178
19.8 Practical Prototypes of DMFC and Their Features 180
19.9 The Problems to be Solved in Future DMFC 181
19.10 Direct Liquid Fuel Cells (DLFC) 183 Reference 188 Reviews 188 20 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 191
20.1 Special Features of High-Temperature Fuel Cells 191
20.2 The Structure of Hydrogen-Oxygen MCFC 192
20.3 MCFC with Internal Fuel Reforming 194
20.4 The Development of MCFC Work 195
20.5 The Lifetime of MCFCs 196 References 198 Reviews and Monographs 198 21 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 199
21.1 Schematic Design of a Conventional SOFC 200
21.2 Tubular SOFCs 201
21.3 Planar SOFCs 202
21.4 Varieties of SOFCs 205
21.5 The Utilization of Natural Fuels in SOFCs 206
21.6 Interim-Temperature SOFCs (ITSOFCs) 208
21.7 Low-Temperature SOFCs (LT-SOFC) 211
21.8 Factors Influencing the Lifetime of SOFCs 211 References 212 Monographs and Reviews 212 22 Other Types of Fuel Cells 213
22.1 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) 213
22.2 Redox Flow Fuel Cells 218
22.3 Biological Fuel Cells 221
22.4 Direct Carbon Fuel Cells (DCFCs) 224 References 227 Monographs 227 23 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) 229
23.1 Hydrogen-Oxygen AFCs 230
23.2 Problems in the AFC Field 233
23.3 The Present State and Future Prospects of AFC Work 235
23.4 Anion-Exchange (Hydroxyl Ion Conducting) Membranes 236
23.5 Methanol Fuel Cell with an Invariant Alkaline Electrolyte 237 References 237 Monograph 237 24 Applications of Fuel Cells 239
24.1 Large Stationary Power Plants 239
24.2 Small Stationary Power Units 242
24.3 Fuel Cells for Transport Applications 243
24.4 Portables 248
24.5 Military Applications 250 References 250 25 Outlook for Fuel Cells 251
25.1 Alternating Periods of Hope and Disappointment--Forever? 252
25.2 Development of Electrocatalysis 252
25.3 "Ideal Fuel Cells" Do Exist 253
25.4 Expected Future Situation with Fuel Cells 255 Reference 256 Monographs 256
Part IV Supercapacitors 257 26 General Aspects 259
26.1 Electrolytic Capacitors 259 References 261 27 Electrochemical Supercapacitors with Carbon Electrodes 263
27.1 Introduction 263
27.2 Main Properties of Electric Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC) 264
27.3 EDLC Energy Density and Power Density 267
27.4 Fundamentals of EDLC Macrokinetics 271
27.5 Porous Structure and Hydrophilic-Hydrophobic Properties of Highly Dispersed Carbon Electrodes 272
27.6 Effect of Ratio of Ion and Molecule Sizes and Pore Sizes 275
27.7 Effect of Functional Groups on EDLC Characteristics 277
27.8 Electrolytes Used in EDLC 279
27.9 Impedance of Highly Dispersed Carbon Electrodes 283
27.10 Nanoporous Carbons Obtained Using Various Techniques 286
27.11 High-Frequency Carbon Supercapacitors 303
27.12 Self-Discharge of Carbon Electrodes and Supercapacitors 306
27.13 Processes of EDLC Degradation (AGING) 311 References 313 Monograph and Reviews 313 28 Pseudocapacitor Electrodes and Supercapacitors 315
28.1 Electrodes Based on Inorganic Salts of Transition Metals 315
28.2 Electrodes Based on Electron-Conducting Polymers (ECPs) 322
28.3 Redox Capacitors Based on Organic Monomers 333
28.4 Lithium-Cation-Exchange Capacitors 335 References 337 Monograph and Reviews 337 29 Hybrid (Asymmetric) Supercapacitors (HSCs) 339
29.1 HSCs of MeO x /C Types 339
29.2 HSCs of ECP/C Type 343 References 344 Review 344 30 Comparison of Characteristics of Supercapacitors and Other Electrochemical Devices. Characteristics of Commercial Supercapacitors 345 Reference 350 Reviews 350 31 Prospects of Electrochemical Supercapacitors 351 32 Electrochemical Aspects of Solar Energy Conversion 355 32