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Viser: Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, Volume 3
Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering, Volume 3
Myer Kutz
(2016)
Sprog: Engelsk
John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated
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Detaljer om varen
- Hardback: 832 sider
- Udgiver: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated (April 2016)
- ISBN: 9781118647240
A multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications
"When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science." -- Lord Kelvin
Measurement is at the heart of any engineering and scientific discipline and job function. Whether engineers and scientists are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful data.
The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering and scientific measurements--beyond anything on the market today. Encyclopedic in scope, Volume 3 covers measurements in physics, electrical engineering and chemistry:
- Laser Measurement Techniques
- Magnetic Force Images using Capacitive Coupling Effect
- Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
- Measurement of Light and Color
- The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation
- Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks
- Laboratory-Based Gravity Measurement
- Cryogenic Measurements
- Temperature-Dependent Fluorescence Measurements
- Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems
- Electric Power and Energy Measurement
- Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences
- Liquid Chromatography
- Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine-Containing Proteins
- Fluorescence Spectroscopy
- X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
- Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy
- Nanomaterials Properties
- Chemical Sensing
VOLUME 3 List of Contributors xxi PREFACE xxv
Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943 54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945 Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles
54.1 Introduction, 1945
54.1.1 History and Development of the MASER, 1945
54.1.2 Basic Laser Physics, 1946
54.1.3 Laser Beam Characteristics, 1951
54.1.4 Example: CO2 Laser Pumped FarInfrared Gas Laser Systems, 1956
54.1.5 Heterodyned Detection, 1959
54.1.6 Transformation of Multimode Laser Beams from THz Quantum Cascade Lasers, 1962
54.1.7 Suggested Reading, 1965
54.2 Laser Measurements: LaserBased Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965
54.2.1 ISAR Theory, 1966
54.2.2 DFT in Radar Imaging, 1967
54.2.3 Signal Processing Considerations: Sampling Theory, 1970
54.2.4 Measurement Calibration, 1971
54.2.5 Example Terahertz Compact Radar Range, 1972
54.2.6 Suggested Reading, 1974
54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974
54.3.1 Imaging System Measurement Parameters, 1975
54.3.2 Terahertz Polarized Reflection Imaging of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers, 1981
54.3.3 Confocal Imaging, 1985
54.3.4 Optical Coherence Tomography, 1987
54.3.5 Femtosecond Laser Imaging, 1990
54.3.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy, 1996
54.3.7 Suggested Reading, 1997 References, 1997 55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001 Byung I. Kim
55.1 Introduction, 2001
55.2 Experiment, 2004
55.2.1 Principle, 2004
55.2.2 Instrumentation, 2004
55.2.3 Approach, 2005
55.3 Results and Discussion, 2006
55.3.1 Separation of Topographic Features from Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect, 2007
55.3.2 Effects of LongRange Tip-Sample Interaction on Magnetic Force Imaging: A Comparative Study Between BimorphDriven System and Electrostatic Force Modulation, 2012
55.4 Conclusion, 2020 References, 2021 56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025 KwokWai Ng
56.1 Introduction, 2025
56.2 Theory of Operation, 2026
56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current, 2030
56.4 The Scanner, 2032
56.5 Operating Mode, 2035
56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism, 2036
56.7 Summary, 2041 References, 2042 57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043 John D. Bullough
57.1 Introduction, 2043
57.2 Lighting Terminology, 2043
57.2.1 Fundamental Light and Color Terms, 2043
57.2.2 Terms Describing the Amount and Distribution of Light, 2047
57.2.3 Terms Describing Lighting Technologies and Performance, 2048
57.2.4 Common Quantities Used in Lighting Specification, 2052
57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry, 2056
57.3.1 Photometry, 2056
57.3.2 Colorimetry, 2063
57.4 Instrumentation, 2072
57.4.1 Illuminance Meters, 2072
57.4.2 Luminance Meters, 2072
57.4.3 Spectroradiometers, 2074 References, 2074 58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075 Clair J. Sullivan
58.1 Introduction, 2075
58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation, 2076
58.2.1 Radiation Interactions, 2076
58.3 The Measurement of Charge, 2077
58.3.1 Counting Statistics, 2078
58.3.2 The Two Measurement Modalities, 2080
58.4 Major Types of Detectors, 2081
58.4.1 Gas Detectors, 2081
58.4.2 Ionization Chambers, 2086
58.4.3 Proportional Counters, 2090
58.4.4 GM Detectors, 2092
58.4.5 Scintillators, 2092
58.4.6 Readout of Scintillation Light, 2094
58.4.7 Semiconductors, 2096
58.5 Neutron Detection, 2100
58.5.1 Thermal Neutron Detection, 2102
58.5.2 Fast Neutron Detection, 2104
58.6 Concluding Remarks, 2106 References, 2106 59 Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks 2109 Judah Levine
59.1 Introduction, 2109
59.2 A Generic Clock, 2109
59.3 Characterizing the Stability of Clocks and Oscillators, 2110
59.3.1 WorstCase Analysis, 2111
59.3.2 Statistical Analysis and the Allan Variance, 2113
59.3.3 Limitations of the Statistics, 2116
59.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Oscillators, 2117
59.5 Comparing Clocks and Oscillators, 2119
59.6 Noise Models, 2121
59.6.1 White Phase Noise, 2121
59.6.2 White Frequency Noise, 2122
59.6.3 LongPeriod Effects: Frequency Aging, 2123
59.6.4 Flicker Noise, 2124
59.7 Measuring Tools and Methods, 2126
59.8 Measurement Strategies, 2129
59.9 The Kalman Estimator, 2133
59.10 Transmitting Time and Frequency Information, 2135
59.10.1 Modeling the Delay, 2136
59.10.2 The CommonView Method, 2137
59.10.3 The "MeltingPot" Version of Common View, 2138
59.10.4 TwoWay Methods, 2139
59.10.5 The TwoColor Method, 2139
59.11 Examples of the Measurement Strategies, 2141
59.11.1 The Navigation Satellites of the GPS, 2141
59.11.2 The OneWay Method of Time Transfer: Modeling the Delay, 2144
59.11.3 The CommonView Method, 2145
59.11.4 TwoWay Time Protocols, 2147
59.12 The Polling Interval: How Often Should I Calibrate a Clock?, 2152
59.13 Error Detection, 2155
59.14 Cost-Benefit Analysis, 2156
59.15 The National Time Scale, 2157
59.16 Traceability, 2158
59.17 Summary, 2159
59.18 Bibliography, 2160 References, 2160 60 LaboratoryBased Gravity Measurement 2163 Charles D. Hoyle, Jr.
60.1 Introduction, 2163
60.2 Motivation for LaboratoryScale Tests of Gravitational Physics, 2164
60.3 Parameterization, 2165
60.4 Current Status of LaboratoryScale Gravitational Measurements, 2166
60.4.1 Tests of the ISL, 2166
60.4.2 WEP Tests, 2167
60.4.3 Measurements of G, 2167
60.5 Torsion Pendulum Experiments, 2167
60.5.1 General Principles and Sensitivity, 2168
60.5.2 Fundamental Limitations, 2168
60.5.3 ISL Experiments, 2171
60.5.4 Future ISL Tests, 2172
60.5.5 WEP Tests, 2176
60.5.6 Measurements of G, 2176
60.6 Microoscillators and Submicron Tests of Gravity, 2177
60.6.1 Microcantilevers, 2177
60.6.2 Very ShortRange ISL Tests, 2177
60.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Techniques, 2178 Acknowledgements, 2178 References, 2178 61 Cryogenic Measurements 2181 Ray Radebaugh
61.1 Introduction, 2181
61.2 Temperature, 2182
61.2.1 ITS90 Temperature Scale and Primary Standards, 2182
61.2.2 Commercial Thermometers, 2183
61.2.3 Thermometer Use and Comparisons, 2193
61.2.4 Dynamic Temperature Measurements, 2199
61.3 Strain, 2201
61.3.1 Metal Alloy Strain Gages, 2202
61.3.2 Temperature Effects, 2203
61.3.3 Magnetic Field Effects, 2204
61.3.4 Measurement System, 2205
61.3.5 Dynamic Measurements, 2205
61.4 Pressure, 2205
61.4.1 Capacitance Pressure Sensors, 2206
61.4.2 Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensors, 2206
61.4.3 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors, 2208
61.4.4 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors, 2210
61.5 Flow, 2211
61.5.1 Positive Displacement Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2212
61.5.2 Angular Momentum Flowmeter (Mass Flow), 2212
61.5.3 Turbine Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2213
61.5.4 Differential Pressure Flowmeter, 2213
61.5.5 Thermal or Calorimetric (Mass Flow), 2216
61.5.6 HotWire Anemometer (Mass Flow), 2217
61.6 Liquid Level, 2218
61.7 Magnetic Field, 2219
61.8 Conclusions, 2220 References, 2220 62 TemperatureDependent Fluorescence Measurements 2225 James E. Parks, Michael R. Cates, Stephen W. Allison, David L. Beshears, M. Al Akerman, and Matthew B. Scudiere
62.1 Introduction, 2225
62.2 Advantages of Phosphor Thermometry, 2227
62.3 Theory and Background, 2227
62.4 Laboratory Calibration of Tp Systems, 2235
62.5 History of Phosphor Thermometry, 2238
62.6 Representative Measurement Applications, 2239
62.6.1 Permanent Magnet Rotor Measurement, 2239
62.6.2 Turbine Engine Component Measurement, 2240
62.7 TwoDimensional and TimeDependent Temperature Measurement, 2241
62.8 Conclusion, 2243 References, 2243 63 Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems 2245 Carlo Muscas and Nicola Locci
63.1 Introduction, 2245
63.2 Characterization of Voltage and Current Transducers, 2247
63.3 Instrument Transformers, 2248
63.3.1 Theoretical Fundamentals and Characteristics, 2248
63.3.2 Instrument Transformers for Protective Purposes, 2252
63.3.3 Instrument Transformers under Nonsinusoidal Conditions, 2253
63.3.4 Capacitive Voltage Transformer, 2254
63.4 Transducers Based on Passive Components, 2255
63.4.1 Shunts, 2255
63.4.2 Voltage Dividers, 2256
63.4.3 Isolation Amplifiers, 2257
63.5 HallEffect and ZeroFlux Transducers, 2258
63.5.1 The Hall Effect, 2258
63.5.2 OpenLoop HallEffect Transducers, 2259
63.5.3 ClosedLoop HallEffect Transducers, 2259
63.5.4 ZeroFlux Transducers, 2262
63.6 AirCore Current Transducers: Rogowski Coils, 2262
63.7 Optical Current and Voltage Tran
Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943 54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945 Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles
54.1 Introduction, 1945
54.1.1 History and Development of the MASER, 1945
54.1.2 Basic Laser Physics, 1946
54.1.3 Laser Beam Characteristics, 1951
54.1.4 Example: CO2 Laser Pumped FarInfrared Gas Laser Systems, 1956
54.1.5 Heterodyned Detection, 1959
54.1.6 Transformation of Multimode Laser Beams from THz Quantum Cascade Lasers, 1962
54.1.7 Suggested Reading, 1965
54.2 Laser Measurements: LaserBased Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965
54.2.1 ISAR Theory, 1966
54.2.2 DFT in Radar Imaging, 1967
54.2.3 Signal Processing Considerations: Sampling Theory, 1970
54.2.4 Measurement Calibration, 1971
54.2.5 Example Terahertz Compact Radar Range, 1972
54.2.6 Suggested Reading, 1974
54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974
54.3.1 Imaging System Measurement Parameters, 1975
54.3.2 Terahertz Polarized Reflection Imaging of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers, 1981
54.3.3 Confocal Imaging, 1985
54.3.4 Optical Coherence Tomography, 1987
54.3.5 Femtosecond Laser Imaging, 1990
54.3.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy, 1996
54.3.7 Suggested Reading, 1997 References, 1997 55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001 Byung I. Kim
55.1 Introduction, 2001
55.2 Experiment, 2004
55.2.1 Principle, 2004
55.2.2 Instrumentation, 2004
55.2.3 Approach, 2005
55.3 Results and Discussion, 2006
55.3.1 Separation of Topographic Features from Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect, 2007
55.3.2 Effects of LongRange Tip-Sample Interaction on Magnetic Force Imaging: A Comparative Study Between BimorphDriven System and Electrostatic Force Modulation, 2012
55.4 Conclusion, 2020 References, 2021 56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025 KwokWai Ng
56.1 Introduction, 2025
56.2 Theory of Operation, 2026
56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current, 2030
56.4 The Scanner, 2032
56.5 Operating Mode, 2035
56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism, 2036
56.7 Summary, 2041 References, 2042 57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043 John D. Bullough
57.1 Introduction, 2043
57.2 Lighting Terminology, 2043
57.2.1 Fundamental Light and Color Terms, 2043
57.2.2 Terms Describing the Amount and Distribution of Light, 2047
57.2.3 Terms Describing Lighting Technologies and Performance, 2048
57.2.4 Common Quantities Used in Lighting Specification, 2052
57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry, 2056
57.3.1 Photometry, 2056
57.3.2 Colorimetry, 2063
57.4 Instrumentation, 2072
57.4.1 Illuminance Meters, 2072
57.4.2 Luminance Meters, 2072
57.4.3 Spectroradiometers, 2074 References, 2074 58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075 Clair J. Sullivan
58.1 Introduction, 2075
58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation, 2076
58.2.1 Radiation Interactions, 2076
58.3 The Measurement of Charge, 2077
58.3.1 Counting Statistics, 2078
58.3.2 The Two Measurement Modalities, 2080
58.4 Major Types of Detectors, 2081
58.4.1 Gas Detectors, 2081
58.4.2 Ionization Chambers, 2086
58.4.3 Proportional Counters, 2090
58.4.4 GM Detectors, 2092
58.4.5 Scintillators, 2092
58.4.6 Readout of Scintillation Light, 2094
58.4.7 Semiconductors, 2096
58.5 Neutron Detection, 2100
58.5.1 Thermal Neutron Detection, 2102
58.5.2 Fast Neutron Detection, 2104
58.6 Concluding Remarks, 2106 References, 2106 59 Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks 2109 Judah Levine
59.1 Introduction, 2109
59.2 A Generic Clock, 2109
59.3 Characterizing the Stability of Clocks and Oscillators, 2110
59.3.1 WorstCase Analysis, 2111
59.3.2 Statistical Analysis and the Allan Variance, 2113
59.3.3 Limitations of the Statistics, 2116
59.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Oscillators, 2117
59.5 Comparing Clocks and Oscillators, 2119
59.6 Noise Models, 2121
59.6.1 White Phase Noise, 2121
59.6.2 White Frequency Noise, 2122
59.6.3 LongPeriod Effects: Frequency Aging, 2123
59.6.4 Flicker Noise, 2124
59.7 Measuring Tools and Methods, 2126
59.8 Measurement Strategies, 2129
59.9 The Kalman Estimator, 2133
59.10 Transmitting Time and Frequency Information, 2135
59.10.1 Modeling the Delay, 2136
59.10.2 The CommonView Method, 2137
59.10.3 The "MeltingPot" Version of Common View, 2138
59.10.4 TwoWay Methods, 2139
59.10.5 The TwoColor Method, 2139
59.11 Examples of the Measurement Strategies, 2141
59.11.1 The Navigation Satellites of the GPS, 2141
59.11.2 The OneWay Method of Time Transfer: Modeling the Delay, 2144
59.11.3 The CommonView Method, 2145
59.11.4 TwoWay Time Protocols, 2147
59.12 The Polling Interval: How Often Should I Calibrate a Clock?, 2152
59.13 Error Detection, 2155
59.14 Cost-Benefit Analysis, 2156
59.15 The National Time Scale, 2157
59.16 Traceability, 2158
59.17 Summary, 2159
59.18 Bibliography, 2160 References, 2160 60 LaboratoryBased Gravity Measurement 2163 Charles D. Hoyle, Jr.
60.1 Introduction, 2163
60.2 Motivation for LaboratoryScale Tests of Gravitational Physics, 2164
60.3 Parameterization, 2165
60.4 Current Status of LaboratoryScale Gravitational Measurements, 2166
60.4.1 Tests of the ISL, 2166
60.4.2 WEP Tests, 2167
60.4.3 Measurements of G, 2167
60.5 Torsion Pendulum Experiments, 2167
60.5.1 General Principles and Sensitivity, 2168
60.5.2 Fundamental Limitations, 2168
60.5.3 ISL Experiments, 2171
60.5.4 Future ISL Tests, 2172
60.5.5 WEP Tests, 2176
60.5.6 Measurements of G, 2176
60.6 Microoscillators and Submicron Tests of Gravity, 2177
60.6.1 Microcantilevers, 2177
60.6.2 Very ShortRange ISL Tests, 2177
60.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Techniques, 2178 Acknowledgements, 2178 References, 2178 61 Cryogenic Measurements 2181 Ray Radebaugh
61.1 Introduction, 2181
61.2 Temperature, 2182
61.2.1 ITS90 Temperature Scale and Primary Standards, 2182
61.2.2 Commercial Thermometers, 2183
61.2.3 Thermometer Use and Comparisons, 2193
61.2.4 Dynamic Temperature Measurements, 2199
61.3 Strain, 2201
61.3.1 Metal Alloy Strain Gages, 2202
61.3.2 Temperature Effects, 2203
61.3.3 Magnetic Field Effects, 2204
61.3.4 Measurement System, 2205
61.3.5 Dynamic Measurements, 2205
61.4 Pressure, 2205
61.4.1 Capacitance Pressure Sensors, 2206
61.4.2 Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensors, 2206
61.4.3 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors, 2208
61.4.4 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors, 2210
61.5 Flow, 2211
61.5.1 Positive Displacement Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2212
61.5.2 Angular Momentum Flowmeter (Mass Flow), 2212
61.5.3 Turbine Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2213
61.5.4 Differential Pressure Flowmeter, 2213
61.5.5 Thermal or Calorimetric (Mass Flow), 2216
61.5.6 HotWire Anemometer (Mass Flow), 2217
61.6 Liquid Level, 2218
61.7 Magnetic Field, 2219
61.8 Conclusions, 2220 References, 2220 62 TemperatureDependent Fluorescence Measurements 2225 James E. Parks, Michael R. Cates, Stephen W. Allison, David L. Beshears, M. Al Akerman, and Matthew B. Scudiere
62.1 Introduction, 2225
62.2 Advantages of Phosphor Thermometry, 2227
62.3 Theory and Background, 2227
62.4 Laboratory Calibration of Tp Systems, 2235
62.5 History of Phosphor Thermometry, 2238
62.6 Representative Measurement Applications, 2239
62.6.1 Permanent Magnet Rotor Measurement, 2239
62.6.2 Turbine Engine Component Measurement, 2240
62.7 TwoDimensional and TimeDependent Temperature Measurement, 2241
62.8 Conclusion, 2243 References, 2243 63 Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems 2245 Carlo Muscas and Nicola Locci
63.1 Introduction, 2245
63.2 Characterization of Voltage and Current Transducers, 2247
63.3 Instrument Transformers, 2248
63.3.1 Theoretical Fundamentals and Characteristics, 2248
63.3.2 Instrument Transformers for Protective Purposes, 2252
63.3.3 Instrument Transformers under Nonsinusoidal Conditions, 2253
63.3.4 Capacitive Voltage Transformer, 2254
63.4 Transducers Based on Passive Components, 2255
63.4.1 Shunts, 2255
63.4.2 Voltage Dividers, 2256
63.4.3 Isolation Amplifiers, 2257
63.5 HallEffect and ZeroFlux Transducers, 2258
63.5.1 The Hall Effect, 2258
63.5.2 OpenLoop HallEffect Transducers, 2259
63.5.3 ClosedLoop HallEffect Transducers, 2259
63.5.4 ZeroFlux Transducers, 2262
63.6 AirCore Current Transducers: Rogowski Coils, 2262
63.7 Optical Current and Voltage Tran
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