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Fuel Cell Systems Explained Vital Source e-bog
Andrew L. Dicks og David A. J. Rand
(2018)
John Wiley & Sons
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Fuel Cell Systems Explained
Andrew L. Dicks og David A. J. Rand
(2018)
Sprog: Engelsk
John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated
970,00 kr.
873,00 kr.
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Detaljer om varen
- 3. Udgave
- Vital Source searchable e-book (Reflowable pages)
- Udgiver: John Wiley & Sons (Marts 2018)
- Forfattere: Andrew L. Dicks og David A. J. Rand
- ISBN: 9781118706961
Since publication of the first edition of Fuel Cell Systems Explained, three compelling drivers have supported the continuing development of fuel cell technology. These are: the need to maintain energy security in an energy-hungry world, the desire to move towards zero-emission vehicles and power plants, and the mitigation of climate change by lowering of CO2 emissions. New fuel cell materials, enhanced stack performance and increased lifetimes are leading to the emergence of the first truly commercial systems in applications that range from fork-lift trucks to power sources for mobile phone towers. Leading vehicle manufacturers have embraced the use of electric drive-trains and now see hydrogen fuel cells complementing advanced battery technology in zero-emission vehicles. After many decades of laboratory development, a global but fragile fuel cell industry is bringing the first commercial products to market. This thoroughly revised edition includes several new sections devoted to, for example, fuel cell characterisation, improved materials for low-temperature hydrogen and liquid-fuelled systems, and real-world technology implementation. Assuming no prior knowledge of fuel cell technology, the third edition comprehensively brings together all of the key topics encompassed in this diverse field. Practitioners, researchers and students in electrical, power, chemical and automotive engineering will continue to benefit from this essential guide to the principles, design and implementation of fuel cell systems.
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Detaljer om varen
- 3. Udgave
- Hardback: 496 sider
- Udgiver: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated (Juli 2018)
- Forfattere: Andrew L. Dicks og David A. J. Rand
- ISBN: 9781118613528
Since publication of the first edition of Fuel Cell Systems Explained, three compelling drivers have supported the continuing development of fuel cell technology. These are: the need to maintain energy security in an energy-hungry world, the desire to move towards zero-emission vehicles and power plants, and the mitigation of climate change by lowering of CO2 emissions. New fuel cell materials, enhanced stack performance and increased lifetimes are leading to the emergence of the first truly commercial systems in applications that range from fork-lift trucks to power sources for mobile phone towers. Leading vehicle manufacturers have embraced the use of electric drive-trains and now see hydrogen fuel cells complementing advanced battery technology in zero-emission vehicles. After many decades of laboratory development, a global but fragile fuel cell industry is bringing the first commercial products to market.
This thoroughly revised edition includes several new sections devoted to, for example, fuel cell characterisation, improved materials for low-temperature hydrogen and liquid-fuelled systems, and real-world technology implementation.
Assuming no prior knowledge of fuel cell technology, the third edition comprehensively brings together all of the key topics encompassed in this diverse field. Practitioners, researchers and students in electrical, power, chemical and automotive engineering will continue to benefit from this essential guide to the principles, design and implementation of fuel cell systems.
Brief Biographies xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Acronyms and Initialisms xix Symbols and Units xxv 1 Introducing Fuel Cells 1
1.1 Historical Perspective 1
1.2 Fuel-Cell Basics 7
1.3 Electrode Reaction Rates 9
1.4 Stack Design 11
1.5 Gas Supply and Cooling 14
1.6 Principal Technologies 17
1.7 Mechanically Rechargeable Batteries and Other Fuel Cells 19
1.7.1 Metal-Air Cells 20
1.7.2 Redox Flow Cells 20
1.7.3 Biological Fuel Cells 23
1.8 Balance-of-Plant Components 23
1.9 Fuel-Cell Systems: Key Parameters 24
1.10 Advantages and Applications 25 Further Reading 26 2 Efficiency and Open-Circuit Voltage 27
2.1 Open-Circuit Voltage: Hydrogen Fuel Cell 27
2.2 Open-Circuit Voltage: Other Fuel Cells and Batteries 31
2.3 Efficiency and Its Limits 32
2.4 Efficiency and Voltage 35
2.5 Influence of Pressure and Gas Concentration 36
2.5.1 Nernst Equation 36
2.5.2 Hydrogen Partial Pressure 38
2.5.3 Fuel and Oxidant Utilization 39
2.5.4 System Pressure 39
2.6 Summary 40 Further Reading 41 3 Operational Fuel-Cell Voltages 43
3.1 Fundamental Voltage: Current Behaviour 43
3.2 Terminology 44
3.3 Fuel-Cell Irreversibilities 46
3.4 ActivationLosses 46
3.4.1 The Tafel Equation 46
3.4.2 The Constants in the Tafel Equation 48
3.4.3 Reducing the Activation Overpotential 51
3.5 InternalCurrents and Fuel Crossover 52
3.6 Ohmic Losses 54
3.7 Mass-Transport Losses 55
3.8 Combining the Irreversibilities 57
3.9 The Electrical Double-Layer 58
3.10 Techniques for Distinguishing Irreversibilities 60
3.10.1 Cyclic Voltammetry 60
3.10.2 AC Impedance Spectroscopy 61
3.10.3 Current Interruption 65 Further Reading 68 4 Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 69
4.1 Overview 69
4.2 Polymer Electrolyte: Principles of Operation 72
4.2.1 Perfluorinated Sulfonic Acid Membrane 72
4.2.2 Modified Perfluorinated Sulfonic Acid Membranes 76
4.2.3 Alternative Sulfonated and Non-Sulfonated Membranes 77
4.2.4 Acid-Base Complexes and Ionic Liquids 79
4.2.5 High-Temperature Proton Conductors 80
4.3 Electrodes and Electrode Structure 81
4.3.1 Catalyst Layers: Platinum-Based Catalysts 82
4.3.2 Catalyst Layers: Alternative Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction 85
4.3.2.1 Macrocyclics 86
4.3.2.2 Chalcogenides 87
4.3.2.3 Conductive Polymers 87
4.3.2.4 Nitrides 87
4.3.2.5 Functionalized Carbons 87
4.3.2.6 Heteropolyacids 88
4.3.3 Catalyst Layer: Negative Electrode 88
4.3.4 Catalyst Durability 88
4.3.5 Gas-Diffusion Layer 89
4.4 Water Management 92
4.4.1 Hydration and Water Movement 92
4.4.2 Air Flow and Water Evaporation 94
4.4.3 Air Humidity 96
4.4.4 Self-Humidified Cells 98
4.4.5 External Humidification: Principles 100
4.4.6 External Humidification: Methods 102
4.5 Cooling and Air Supply 104
4.5.1 Cooling with Cathode Air Supply 104
4.5.2 Separate Reactant and Cooling Air 104
4.5.3 Water Cooling 105
4.6 Stack Construction Methods 107
4.6.1 Introduction 107
4.6.2 Carbon Bipolar Plates 107
4.6.3 Metal Bipolar Plates 109
4.6.4 Flow-Field Patterns 110
4.6.5 Other Topologies 112
4.6.6 Mixed Reactant Cells 114
4.7 Operating Pressure 115
4.7.1 Technical Issues 115
4.7.2 Benefits of High Operating Pressures 117
4.7.2.1 Current 117
4.7.3 Other Factors 120
4.8 Fuel Types 120
4.8.1 Reformed Hydrocarbons 120
4.8.2 Alcohols and Other Liquid Fuels 121
4.9 Practical and Commercial Systems 122
4.9.1 Small-Scale Systems 122
4.9.2 Medium-Scale for Stationary Applications 123
4.9.3 Transport System Applications 125
4.10 System Design, Stack Lifetime and Related Issues 129
4.10.1 Membrane Degradation 129
4.10.2 Catalyst Degradation 129
4.10.3 System Control 129
4.11 Unitized Regenerative Fuel Cells 130 Further Reading 132 5 Alkaline Fuel Cells 135
5.1 Principles of Operation 135
5.2 System Designs 137
5.2.1 Circulating Electrolyte Solution 137
5.2.2 Static Electrolyte Solution 140
5.2.3 Dissolved Fuel 142
5.2.4 Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 144
5.3 Electrodes 147
5.3.1 Sintered Nickel Powder 147
5.3.2 Raney Metals 147
5.3.3 Rolled Carbon 148
5.3.4 Catalysts 150
5.4 Stack Designs 151
5.4.1 Monopolar and Bipolar 151
5.4.2 Other Stack Designs 152
5.5 Operating Pressure and Temperature 152
5.6 Opportunities and Challenges 155 Further Reading 156 6 Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 157
6.1 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 157
6.1.1 Principles of Operation 160
6.1.2 Electrode Reactions with a Proton-Exchange Membrane Electrolyte 160
6.1.3 Electrode Reactions with an Alkaline Electrolyte 162
6.1.4 Anode Catalysts 162
6.1.5 Cathode Catalysts 163
6.1.6 System Designs 164
6.1.7 Fuel Crossover 165
6.1.8 Mitigating Fuel Crossover: Standard Techniques 166
6.1.9 Mitigating Fuel Crossover: Prospective Techniques 167
6.1.10 Methanol Production 168
6.1.11 Methanol Safety and Storage 168
6.2 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells 169
6.2.1 Principles of Operation 170
6.2.2 Ethanol Oxidation, Catalyst and Reaction Mechanism 170
6.2.3 Low-Temperature Operation: Performance and Challenges 172
6.2.4 High-Temperature Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells 173
6.3 Direct Propanol Fuel Cells 173
6.4 Direct Ethylene Glycol Fuel Cells 174
6.4.1 Principles of Operation 174
6.4.2 Ethylene Glycol: Anodic Oxidation 175
6.4.3 Cell Performance 176
6.5 Formic Acid Fuel Cells 176
6.5.1 Formic Acid: Anodic Oxidation 177
6.5.2 Cell Performance 177
6.6 Borohydride Fuel Cells 178
6.6.1 Anode Catalysts 180
6.6.2 Challenges 180
6.7 Application of Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 182 Further Reading 184 7 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 187
7.1 High- Temperature Fuel-Cell Systems 187
7.2 System Design 188
7.2.1 Fuel Processing 188
7.2.2 Fuel Utilization 189
7.2.3 Heat-Exchangers 192
7.2.3.1 Designs 193
7.2.3.2 Exergy Analysis 193
7.2.3.3 Pinch Analysis 194
7.3 Principles of Operation 196
7.3.1 Electrolyte 196
7.3.2 Electrodes and Catalysts 198
7.3.3 Stack Construction 199
7.3.4 Stack Cooling and Manifolding 200
7.4 Performance 201
7.4.1 Operating Pressure 202
7.4.2 Operating Temperature 202
7.4.3 Effects of Fuel and Oxidant Composition 203
7.4.4 Effects of Carbon Monoxide and Sulfur 204
7.5 Technological Developments 204 Further Reading 206 8 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells 207
8.1 Principles of Operation 207
8.2 Cell Components 210
8.2.1 Electrolyte 211
8.2.2 Anode 213
8.2.3 Cathode 214
8.2.4 Non-Porous Components 215
8.3 Stack Configuration and Sealing 215
8.3.1 Manifolding 216
8.3.2 Internal and External Reforming 218
8.4 Performance 220
8.4.1 Influence of Pressure 220
8.4.2 Influence of Temperature 222
8.5 Practical Systems 223
8.5.1 Fuel Cell Energy (USA) 223
8.5.2 Fuel Cell Energy Solutions (Europe) 225
8.5.3 Facilities in Japan 228
8.5.4 Facilities in South Korea 228
8.6 Future Research and Development 229
8.7 Hydrogen Production and Carbon Dioxide Separation 230
8.8 Direct Carbon Fuel Cell 231 Further Reading 234 9 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 235
9.1 Principles of Operation 235
9.1.1 High-Temperature (HT) Cells 235
9.1.2 Low-Temperature (IT) Cells 237
9.2 Components 238
9.2.1 Zirconia Electrolyte for HT-Cells 238
9.2.2 Electrolytes for IT-Cells 240
9.2.2.1 Ceria 240
9.2.2.2 Perovskites 241
9.2.2.3 Other Materials 243
9.2.3 Anodes 243
9.2.3.1 Nickel-YSZ 243
9.2.3.2 Cathode 245
9.2.3.3 Mixed Ionic-Electronic Conductor Anode 246
9.2.4 Cathode 247
9.2.5 Interconnect Material 247
9.2.6 Sealing Materials 248
9.3 Practical Design and Stacking Arrangements 249
9.3.1 Tubular Design 249
9.3.2 Planar Design 251
9.4 Performance 253
9.5 Developmental and Commercial Systems 254
9.5.1 Tubular SOFCs 255
9.5.2 Planar SOFCs 256
9.6 Combined-Cycle and Other Systems 258 Further Reading 260 10 Fuels for Fuel Cells 263
10.1 Introduction 263
10.2 Fossil Fuels 266
10.2.1 Petroleum 266
10.2.2 Petroleum from Tar Sands, Oil Shales and Gas Hydrates 268
10.2.3 Coal and Coal Gases 268
10.2.4 Natural Gas and Coal-Bed Methane (Coal-Seam Gas) 270
10.3 Biofuels 272
10.4 Basics of Fuel Processing 275
10.4.1 Fuel-Cell Requirements 275
10.4.2 Desulfurization 275
10.4.3 Steam Reforming 277
10.4.4 Carbon Formation and Pre-Reforming 280
10.4.5 Internal Reforming 281
10.4.5.1 Indirect Internal Reforming (IIR) 283
10.4.5.2 Direct Internal Reforming (DIR) 283
10.4.6 Direct Hydrocarbon Oxidation 284
10.4.7 Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming 285
10.4.8 Solar-Thermal Reforming 286
10.4.9 Sorbent-Enhanced Reforming 287
10.4.10 Hydrogen Generation by Pyr
1.1 Historical Perspective 1
1.2 Fuel-Cell Basics 7
1.3 Electrode Reaction Rates 9
1.4 Stack Design 11
1.5 Gas Supply and Cooling 14
1.6 Principal Technologies 17
1.7 Mechanically Rechargeable Batteries and Other Fuel Cells 19
1.7.1 Metal-Air Cells 20
1.7.2 Redox Flow Cells 20
1.7.3 Biological Fuel Cells 23
1.8 Balance-of-Plant Components 23
1.9 Fuel-Cell Systems: Key Parameters 24
1.10 Advantages and Applications 25 Further Reading 26 2 Efficiency and Open-Circuit Voltage 27
2.1 Open-Circuit Voltage: Hydrogen Fuel Cell 27
2.2 Open-Circuit Voltage: Other Fuel Cells and Batteries 31
2.3 Efficiency and Its Limits 32
2.4 Efficiency and Voltage 35
2.5 Influence of Pressure and Gas Concentration 36
2.5.1 Nernst Equation 36
2.5.2 Hydrogen Partial Pressure 38
2.5.3 Fuel and Oxidant Utilization 39
2.5.4 System Pressure 39
2.6 Summary 40 Further Reading 41 3 Operational Fuel-Cell Voltages 43
3.1 Fundamental Voltage: Current Behaviour 43
3.2 Terminology 44
3.3 Fuel-Cell Irreversibilities 46
3.4 ActivationLosses 46
3.4.1 The Tafel Equation 46
3.4.2 The Constants in the Tafel Equation 48
3.4.3 Reducing the Activation Overpotential 51
3.5 InternalCurrents and Fuel Crossover 52
3.6 Ohmic Losses 54
3.7 Mass-Transport Losses 55
3.8 Combining the Irreversibilities 57
3.9 The Electrical Double-Layer 58
3.10 Techniques for Distinguishing Irreversibilities 60
3.10.1 Cyclic Voltammetry 60
3.10.2 AC Impedance Spectroscopy 61
3.10.3 Current Interruption 65 Further Reading 68 4 Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 69
4.1 Overview 69
4.2 Polymer Electrolyte: Principles of Operation 72
4.2.1 Perfluorinated Sulfonic Acid Membrane 72
4.2.2 Modified Perfluorinated Sulfonic Acid Membranes 76
4.2.3 Alternative Sulfonated and Non-Sulfonated Membranes 77
4.2.4 Acid-Base Complexes and Ionic Liquids 79
4.2.5 High-Temperature Proton Conductors 80
4.3 Electrodes and Electrode Structure 81
4.3.1 Catalyst Layers: Platinum-Based Catalysts 82
4.3.2 Catalyst Layers: Alternative Catalysts for Oxygen Reduction 85
4.3.2.1 Macrocyclics 86
4.3.2.2 Chalcogenides 87
4.3.2.3 Conductive Polymers 87
4.3.2.4 Nitrides 87
4.3.2.5 Functionalized Carbons 87
4.3.2.6 Heteropolyacids 88
4.3.3 Catalyst Layer: Negative Electrode 88
4.3.4 Catalyst Durability 88
4.3.5 Gas-Diffusion Layer 89
4.4 Water Management 92
4.4.1 Hydration and Water Movement 92
4.4.2 Air Flow and Water Evaporation 94
4.4.3 Air Humidity 96
4.4.4 Self-Humidified Cells 98
4.4.5 External Humidification: Principles 100
4.4.6 External Humidification: Methods 102
4.5 Cooling and Air Supply 104
4.5.1 Cooling with Cathode Air Supply 104
4.5.2 Separate Reactant and Cooling Air 104
4.5.3 Water Cooling 105
4.6 Stack Construction Methods 107
4.6.1 Introduction 107
4.6.2 Carbon Bipolar Plates 107
4.6.3 Metal Bipolar Plates 109
4.6.4 Flow-Field Patterns 110
4.6.5 Other Topologies 112
4.6.6 Mixed Reactant Cells 114
4.7 Operating Pressure 115
4.7.1 Technical Issues 115
4.7.2 Benefits of High Operating Pressures 117
4.7.2.1 Current 117
4.7.3 Other Factors 120
4.8 Fuel Types 120
4.8.1 Reformed Hydrocarbons 120
4.8.2 Alcohols and Other Liquid Fuels 121
4.9 Practical and Commercial Systems 122
4.9.1 Small-Scale Systems 122
4.9.2 Medium-Scale for Stationary Applications 123
4.9.3 Transport System Applications 125
4.10 System Design, Stack Lifetime and Related Issues 129
4.10.1 Membrane Degradation 129
4.10.2 Catalyst Degradation 129
4.10.3 System Control 129
4.11 Unitized Regenerative Fuel Cells 130 Further Reading 132 5 Alkaline Fuel Cells 135
5.1 Principles of Operation 135
5.2 System Designs 137
5.2.1 Circulating Electrolyte Solution 137
5.2.2 Static Electrolyte Solution 140
5.2.3 Dissolved Fuel 142
5.2.4 Anion-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 144
5.3 Electrodes 147
5.3.1 Sintered Nickel Powder 147
5.3.2 Raney Metals 147
5.3.3 Rolled Carbon 148
5.3.4 Catalysts 150
5.4 Stack Designs 151
5.4.1 Monopolar and Bipolar 151
5.4.2 Other Stack Designs 152
5.5 Operating Pressure and Temperature 152
5.6 Opportunities and Challenges 155 Further Reading 156 6 Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 157
6.1 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 157
6.1.1 Principles of Operation 160
6.1.2 Electrode Reactions with a Proton-Exchange Membrane Electrolyte 160
6.1.3 Electrode Reactions with an Alkaline Electrolyte 162
6.1.4 Anode Catalysts 162
6.1.5 Cathode Catalysts 163
6.1.6 System Designs 164
6.1.7 Fuel Crossover 165
6.1.8 Mitigating Fuel Crossover: Standard Techniques 166
6.1.9 Mitigating Fuel Crossover: Prospective Techniques 167
6.1.10 Methanol Production 168
6.1.11 Methanol Safety and Storage 168
6.2 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells 169
6.2.1 Principles of Operation 170
6.2.2 Ethanol Oxidation, Catalyst and Reaction Mechanism 170
6.2.3 Low-Temperature Operation: Performance and Challenges 172
6.2.4 High-Temperature Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells 173
6.3 Direct Propanol Fuel Cells 173
6.4 Direct Ethylene Glycol Fuel Cells 174
6.4.1 Principles of Operation 174
6.4.2 Ethylene Glycol: Anodic Oxidation 175
6.4.3 Cell Performance 176
6.5 Formic Acid Fuel Cells 176
6.5.1 Formic Acid: Anodic Oxidation 177
6.5.2 Cell Performance 177
6.6 Borohydride Fuel Cells 178
6.6.1 Anode Catalysts 180
6.6.2 Challenges 180
6.7 Application of Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 182 Further Reading 184 7 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 187
7.1 High- Temperature Fuel-Cell Systems 187
7.2 System Design 188
7.2.1 Fuel Processing 188
7.2.2 Fuel Utilization 189
7.2.3 Heat-Exchangers 192
7.2.3.1 Designs 193
7.2.3.2 Exergy Analysis 193
7.2.3.3 Pinch Analysis 194
7.3 Principles of Operation 196
7.3.1 Electrolyte 196
7.3.2 Electrodes and Catalysts 198
7.3.3 Stack Construction 199
7.3.4 Stack Cooling and Manifolding 200
7.4 Performance 201
7.4.1 Operating Pressure 202
7.4.2 Operating Temperature 202
7.4.3 Effects of Fuel and Oxidant Composition 203
7.4.4 Effects of Carbon Monoxide and Sulfur 204
7.5 Technological Developments 204 Further Reading 206 8 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells 207
8.1 Principles of Operation 207
8.2 Cell Components 210
8.2.1 Electrolyte 211
8.2.2 Anode 213
8.2.3 Cathode 214
8.2.4 Non-Porous Components 215
8.3 Stack Configuration and Sealing 215
8.3.1 Manifolding 216
8.3.2 Internal and External Reforming 218
8.4 Performance 220
8.4.1 Influence of Pressure 220
8.4.2 Influence of Temperature 222
8.5 Practical Systems 223
8.5.1 Fuel Cell Energy (USA) 223
8.5.2 Fuel Cell Energy Solutions (Europe) 225
8.5.3 Facilities in Japan 228
8.5.4 Facilities in South Korea 228
8.6 Future Research and Development 229
8.7 Hydrogen Production and Carbon Dioxide Separation 230
8.8 Direct Carbon Fuel Cell 231 Further Reading 234 9 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 235
9.1 Principles of Operation 235
9.1.1 High-Temperature (HT) Cells 235
9.1.2 Low-Temperature (IT) Cells 237
9.2 Components 238
9.2.1 Zirconia Electrolyte for HT-Cells 238
9.2.2 Electrolytes for IT-Cells 240
9.2.2.1 Ceria 240
9.2.2.2 Perovskites 241
9.2.2.3 Other Materials 243
9.2.3 Anodes 243
9.2.3.1 Nickel-YSZ 243
9.2.3.2 Cathode 245
9.2.3.3 Mixed Ionic-Electronic Conductor Anode 246
9.2.4 Cathode 247
9.2.5 Interconnect Material 247
9.2.6 Sealing Materials 248
9.3 Practical Design and Stacking Arrangements 249
9.3.1 Tubular Design 249
9.3.2 Planar Design 251
9.4 Performance 253
9.5 Developmental and Commercial Systems 254
9.5.1 Tubular SOFCs 255
9.5.2 Planar SOFCs 256
9.6 Combined-Cycle and Other Systems 258 Further Reading 260 10 Fuels for Fuel Cells 263
10.1 Introduction 263
10.2 Fossil Fuels 266
10.2.1 Petroleum 266
10.2.2 Petroleum from Tar Sands, Oil Shales and Gas Hydrates 268
10.2.3 Coal and Coal Gases 268
10.2.4 Natural Gas and Coal-Bed Methane (Coal-Seam Gas) 270
10.3 Biofuels 272
10.4 Basics of Fuel Processing 275
10.4.1 Fuel-Cell Requirements 275
10.4.2 Desulfurization 275
10.4.3 Steam Reforming 277
10.4.4 Carbon Formation and Pre-Reforming 280
10.4.5 Internal Reforming 281
10.4.5.1 Indirect Internal Reforming (IIR) 283
10.4.5.2 Direct Internal Reforming (DIR) 283
10.4.6 Direct Hydrocarbon Oxidation 284
10.4.7 Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming 285
10.4.8 Solar-Thermal Reforming 286
10.4.9 Sorbent-Enhanced Reforming 287
10.4.10 Hydrogen Generation by Pyr
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