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1 * INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Definition of Surveying 1
1.2 Geomatics 3
1.3 History of Surveying 4
1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 9
1.5 Importance of Surveying 10
1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 11
1.7 Surveying Safety 13
1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 14
1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 15
1.10 The Surveying Profession 16
1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 17
1.12 Surveying on the Internet 18
1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 19 Problems 20 Bibliography 21 2 * UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES 23
PART I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Units of Measurement 23
2.3 International System of Units (SI) 25
2.4 Significant Figures 27
2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 29
PART II FIELD NOTES 30
2.6 Field Notes 30
2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 31
2.8 Types of Field Books 32
2.9 Kinds of Notes 33
2.10 Arrangements of Notes 33
2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 35
2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors 36
2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors 39
2.14 Digital Data File Management 41
2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors 42 Problems 43 Bibliography 44 3 * THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS 45
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 45
3.3 Errors in Measurements 46
3.4 Mistakes 46
3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 47
3.6 Types of Errors 47
3.7 Precision and Accuracy 48
3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 49
3.9 Probability 49
3.10 Most Probable Value 50
3.11 Residuals 51
3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 51
3.13 General Laws of Probability 55
3.14 Measures of Precision 55
3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 58
3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 58
3.17 Error Propagation 60
3.18 Applications 65
3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 65
3.20 Weights of Observations 66
3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 67
3.22 Using Software 68 Problems 69 Bibliography 71 4 * LEVELING-THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT 73
PART I LEVELING-THEORY AND METHODS 73
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Definitions 73
4.3 North American Vertical Datum 75
4.4 Curvature and Refraction 76
4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 78
PART II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING 85
4.6 Categories of Levels 85
4.7 Telescopes 86
4.8 Level Vials 87
4.9 Tilting Levels 89
4.10 Automatic Levels 90
4.11 Digital Levels 91
4.12 Tripods 93
4.13 Hand Level 93
4.14 Level Rods 94
4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 96 Problems 100 Bibliography 102 5 * LEVELING-FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS 103
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 103
5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 105
5.4 Differential Leveling 106
5.5 Precision 112
5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 113
5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 114
5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 115
5.9 Profile Leveling 117
5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 121
5.11 Use of the Hand Level 122
5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 122
5.13 Mistakes 124
5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 125
5.15 Using Software 125 Problems 127 Bibliography 129 6 * DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 131
PART I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES 131
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 131
6.3 Pacing 132
6.4 Odometer Readings 132
6.5 Optical Rangefinders 133
6.6 Tacheometry 133
6.7 Subtense Bar 133
PART II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING 133
6.8 Introduction to Taping 133
6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 134
6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 135
6.11 Taping on Level Ground 136
6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 138
6.13 Slope Measurements 140
6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 141
6.15 Tape Problems 145
6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem 147
PART III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT 148
6.17 Introduction 148
6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 149
6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 152
6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments 153
6.21 Total Station Instruments 156
6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 157
6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 158
6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 160
6.25 Using Software 165 Problems 165 Bibliography 168 7 * ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS 169
7.1 Introduction 169
7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 169
7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 170
7.4 Direction of a Line 171
7.5 Azimuths 172
7.6 Bearings 173
7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 174
7.8 Computing Azimuths 175
7.9 Computing Bearings 177
7.10 The Compass and the Earth''s Magnetic Field 179
7.11 Magnetic Declination 180
7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 181
7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 183
7.14 Local Attraction 184
7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 185
7.16 Mistakes 187 Problems 187 Bibliography 189 8 * TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 191
PART I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS 191
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 191
8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 194
8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 195
8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument 199
8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments 201
PART II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS 203
8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 203
8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 204
8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 206
8.10 Closing the Horizon 207
8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 209
8.12 Observing Azimuths 211
8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 211
8.14 Sights and Marks 213
8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 214
8.16 Balancing-In 216
8.17 Random Traverse 217
8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 218
8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 219
8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 222
8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 228
8.22 Mistakes 228 Problems 229 Bibliography 230 9 * TRAVERSING 231
9.1 Introduction 231
9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 233
9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 234
9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 235
9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 235
9.6 Traverse Field Notes 237
9.7 Angle Misclosure 238
9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 239
9.9 Radial Traversing 240
9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 241
9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 242 Problems 242 10 * TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS 245
10.1 Introduction 245
10.2 Balancing Angles 246
10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 248
10.4 Departures and Latitudes 249
10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 251
10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 251
10.7 Traverse Adjustment 252
10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 255
10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations 256
10.10 Inversing 260
10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions 261
10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 263
10.13 Use of Open Traverses 265
10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 268
10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 269
10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 269
10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 272 Problems 272 Bibliography 275 11 * COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS 277es and Circles 278
11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 280
11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions 282
11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 284
11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 287
11.7 Three-Point Resection 289
11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation 292
11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 297
11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 299
11.11 Software 302 Problems 303 Bibliography 307 12 * AREA 309
12.1 Introduction 309
12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 309
12.3 Area by Division Into Simple Figures 310
12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 311
12.5 Area by Coordinates 313
12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 317
12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 320
12.8 Partitioning of Lands 321
12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 325
12.10 Software 327
12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 328
12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 328 Problems 328 Bibliography 330 13 * GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS--INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 331
13.1 Introduction 331
13.2 Overview of GPS 332
13.3 The GPS Signal 335
13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 337
13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 345
13.6 Errors in Observation