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List of Contributors xvii Preface xxvi Acknowledgements xxviii Section I Introduction 1 1 Introduction: Cyanobacteria, Cyanotoxins, Their Human Impact, and Risk Management 3 Geoffrey A. Codd, Jussi Meriluoto, and James S. Metcalf
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Cyanotoxins 4
1.3 Exposure Routes, Exposure Media, and AtRisk Human Activities 6
1.4 Cyanobacterial Blooms and Cyanotoxins in Relation to Human Pressures on Water Resources and Climate Change 7
1.5 Aims of the Handbook 7 References 8 Section II Cyanobacteria 9 2 Ecology of Cyanobacteria 11 JeanFrançois Humbert and Jutta Fastner
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Environmental Conditions Leading to Cyanobacterial Blooms 12
2.3 Population Dynamics of Cyanobacteria 13
2.4 Spatial Distribution of Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Ecosystems 15
2.5 Ecology of the Production of Toxins by Cyanobacteria 16
2.6 General Conclusions 17 References 17 3 Picocyanobacteria: The Smallest CellSize Cyanobacteria 19 Iwona Jasser and Cristiana Callieri
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Records of Toxic Picocyanobacteria 21
3.3 Summary 25 References 26 4 Expansion of Alien and Invasive Cyanobacteria 28 Mikolaj Kokocioski, Reyhan Akçaalan, Nico Salmaso, Maya Petrova StoynevaGärtner, and Assaf Sukenik
4.1 Introduction 28
4.2 Definition of Invasive/Alien Species: Nomenclature Problems 29
4.2.1 Invasive Species Concept in Cyanobacteria 29
4.3 Occurrence of Invasive and Alien Cyanobacteria 31
4.4 Factors Enhancing the Expansion of Alien Cyanobacteria 33
4.5 Impact of Cyanobacterial Invasion on Ecosystem 34 References 36 Section III Sampling, Monitoring and Risk Management 41 5 Health and Safety During Sampling and in the Laboratory 43 Roberta Congestri, James S. Metcalf , Luca Lucentini, and Federica Nigro Di Gregorio
5.1 Introduction 43
5.2 Sampling Safety 43
5.3 Laboratory Safety 44
5.4 Cyanotoxin Production and Application 45
5.5 Contamination due to Equipment, Glassware, and Accidents 45 References 45 6 Basic Guide to Detection and Monitoring of Potentially Toxic Cyanobacteria 46 Nico Salmaso, Cécile Bernard , JeanFrançois Humbert, Reyhan Akçaalan, Meriç Albay, Andreas Ballot , Arnaud Catherine, Jutta Fastner , Kerstin Häggqvist, Mária Horecká, Katarzyna Izydorczyk, Latife Köker , Jirí Komárek, Selma Maloufi, Joanna MankiewiczBoczek, James S. Metcalf , Antonio Quesada, Catherine Quiblier , and Claude Yéprémian
6.1 Introduction 47
6.2 Monitoring of Cyanobacteria: Sampling Strategies 48
6.3 Cyanobacterial Identification and Quantification 55 Appendix
6.1 Testing Phytoplankton Distributions: Ï?2 Test (Pearson GoodnessofFit Test) 63 References 66 7 Case Studies of Environmental Sampling, Detection, and Monitoring of Potentially Toxic Cyanobacteria 70 Kerstin Häggqvist, Reyhan Akçaalan, Isidora EcheniqueSubiabre, Jutta Fastner , Mária Horecká, JeanFrançois Humbert, Katarzyna Izydorczyk, Tomasz Jurczak, Mikolaj Kokocioski, Tore Lindholm, Joanna MankiewiczBoczek, Antonio Quesada, Catherine Quiblier, and Nico Salmaso
7.1 Introduction 71
7.2 Shallow Lakes 71
7.3 Deep Lakes 74
7.4 Reservoirs 75
7.5 Rivers 77
7.6 The Baltic Sea 78
7.7 Waterbodies Used for Drinking Water Production 79 References 81 8 New Tools for the Monitoring of Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Ecosystems 84 JeanFrançois Humbert and Andrea Törökné
8.1 Introduction 84
8.2 Use of Photosynthetic Pigments for the In Situ Quantification of Cyanobacteria and Other Phytoplankton in Water 85
8.3 Integration of Physicochemical and Fluorescence Sensors in Buoys 86
8.4 New Methods for Automatic Cell Counting in Water Samples 86 References 87 9 Remote Sensing of Cyanobacterial Blooms in Inland, Coastal, and Ocean Waters 89 Peter D. Hunter , Mark W. Matthews , Tiit Kutser , and Andrew N. Tyler
9.1 Introduction 89
9.2 Biooptical Properties of Marine and Inland Waters 90
9.3 Platforms and Sensors 91
9.4 Overview of Approaches 92
9.5 Case Study Examples 95
9.6 Future Prospects 96 References 98 10 The Italian System for Cyanobacterial Risk Management in Drinking Water Chains 100 Luca Lucentini, Liliana La Sala , Rossella Colagrossi , and Roberta Congestri
10.1 Introduction 100
10.2 Risk Assessment of Toxic Cyanobacterial Outbreaks in Water for Human Consumption in Italy 101
10.3 Framework of Risk Management of Toxic Cyanobacterial Outbreaks in Water for Human Consumption 102
10.4 Risk Information and Communication 106 References 106 Section IV Toxins and Bioactive/Noxious Compounds from Cyanobacteria 107 11 Microcystins and Nodularins 109 Arnaud Catherine, Cécile Bernard, Lisa Spoof , and Milena Bruno
11.1 Chemical Characteristics and Diversity of Microcystins and Nodularins 109
11.2 Biosynthesis and Genetics of MC and NOD Production 110
11.3 Occurrence of MCs and NODs 112
11.4 Toxicological Effects and Associated Health Risk 113
11.5 Available Methods for the Analysis of MCs and NODs 117 References 118 12 Cylindrospermopsin and Congeners 127 Mikolaj Kokocioski, Ana Maria Cameán, Shmuel Carmeli, Remedios GuzmánGuillén, �ngeles Jos, Joanna MankiewiczBoczek , James S. Metcalf , Isabel Maria Moreno, Ana Isabel Prieto, and Assaf Sukenik
12.1 Chemical Characteristics of Cylindrospermopsin and Congeners 127
12.2 Genes Involved in CYN Biosynthesis 128
12.3 CYN Producers and Distribution 128
12.4 Toxicity of CYN 129
12.5 The Biological Role of CYN 132
12.6 Degradation of CYN 132
12.7 Available Methods for Determining CYN in Waters 132 References 133 13 Anatoxina, Homoanatoxina, and Natural Analogues 138 Milena Bruno, Olivier Ploux, James S. Metcalf , Annick Mejean, Barbara PawlikSkowronska, and Ambrose Furey
13.1 Introduction 138
13.2 Chemical Structure, Synthesis, and Reactivity 138
13.3 Biosynthesis of ANTX, HANTX, and dihydroANTX 140
13.4 Occurrence and Producing Strains 140
13.5 Toxicity and Pharmacology 141
13.6 Analytical Methodologies 142 References 144 14 Saxitoxin and Analogues 148 Andreas Ballot, Cécile Bernard, and Jutta Fastner
14.1 Introduction 148
14.2 Toxicity of STXs 149
14.3 Occurrence 149
14.4 Genetics and Biosynthesis 150
14.5 Detection Methods 151
14.6 Guidance Values or National Regulations or Recommendations for Managing STXs 152 References 152 15 Anatoxina(S) 155 James S. Metcalf and Milena Bruno
15.1 Chemical Structure of Anatoxina(S) 155
15.2 Biosynthesis 155
15.3 Occurrence and Producing Strains 156
15.4 Toxicology and Pharmacology 156
15.5 Analytical Methods for Determination and Quantification 157 References 158 16 βNMethylaminolAlanine and (S)2,4Diaminobutyric Acid 160 Olivier Ploux, Audrey Combes, Johan Eriksson, and James S. Metcalf
16.1 Historical Overview 160
16.2 Structure, Synthesis, and Molecular Properties 161
16.3 Neurotoxicity 161
16.4 Methods for Identification and Quantification 162
16.5 Occurrence in Cyanobacteria, Plants, and Animals 162 References 163 17 Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins 165 Sílvia Monteiro, Ricardo Santos, Ludek Bláha, and Geoffrey A. Codd
17.1 Lipopolysaccharide Endotoxins: Structure 165
17.2 Occurrence of LPS Endotoxins 167
17.3 Toxic Effects of LPS Endotoxins 168
17.4 Methods for Determination of LPS Endotoxins 169 References 170 18 Cyanobacterial Retinoids 173 Kunimitsu Kaya and Tomoharu Sano
18.1 Introduction 173
18.2 Detection of Retinoids Produced by Cyanobacteria 174
18.3 Chemistry and Analysis of Retinoids 175
18.4 Malformations by Cyanobacterial Retinoids 176
18.5 Concluding Remarks 176 References 176 19 Other Cyanobacterial Bioactive Substances 179 Tina Elersek, Ludek Bláha, Hanna MazurMarzec, Wido Schmidt, and Shmuel Carmeli
19.1 Introduction 179
19.2 Aeruginosins and Spumigins 182
19.3 Anabaenopeptins 184
19.4 Biogenic Amines 185
19.5 Depsipeptides 186
19.6 Endocrine Disruptors and Novel Tumour Promoters 187
19.7 Lyngbyatoxins and Other Toxins Produced by Lyngbya majuscula 188
19.8 Microginins 189
19.9 Microviridins 189 References 190 20 Taste and Odour Compounds Produced by Cyanobacteria 196 Triantafyllos Kaloudis, Theodoros M. Triantis, and Anastasia Hiskia
20.1 Cyanobacterial Taste and Odour Compounds in Water Resources 196
20.2 Analytical Methods for Taste and Odour Compounds 197 References 199 Section V Screening and Trace Analysis of Cyanotoxins 203 21 Determination of Cyanotoxins by HighPerformance Liquid Chromatography with Photodiode Array 205 Anastasia Hiskia, Lisa Sp